1916. Red List assessed species 4: EN = 1; VU = 2; LC = 1; Daehler, C. C., and D. R. Strong. Habitat. In: Biological Conservation [ed. I tested the general hypothesis that the intertidal grass Spartina alterniflora facilitates the establishment and persistence of New England cobble beach plant communities by modifying the shoreline environment. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Spartina alterniflora (salt marsh cordgrass) dominates the low marsh zone of tidal marshes on the East Coast of the U.S. (Teal, 1962; Bertness, 1991). Landin MC, 1991. 6. Spartina maritima, S. alterniflora and S. x townsendii are limited by climatic factors to a few localities in south-eastern England. The risk of intentional introductions is now reduced as this species is now a regulated listed weed in most American states, New Zealand, Australia and United Kingdom. It is adapted to near shore habitats including salt marshes, mudflats and estuarine margins. Before S. alterniflora was present, Pacific Northwest estuaries consisted of bare, gently sloping mud flats with shallow tidal channels. Spartina alterniflora (S. alterniflora, smooth cordgrass), a halophyte native deeply rooted in the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America, is an invasive species of coasts at the global scale (An et al., 2007, Zheng et al., 2016). 26. Salt Tolerances and the Distribution of Fugitive Salt Marsh Plants. Bascand L D, 1968. CSIRO Marine Research: Centre for Research on Introduced Marine Pests. A Literature review of rapid response options for the control of ABWMAC listed species and related taxa in Australia. Accretion rates of low intertidal salt marshes in the Pacific Northwest. Balthuis DA, Scott BA, 1993. Cranford P J, Gordon D C, Jarvis C M, 1989. element c - no action: efficacy and impacts. 4.1 Importance of wintering sites to Red‐crowned crane birds and their behavior in each of the Habitat Environmental-Management. and Bax, N.J. 2001, The Wed-Based Rapid Response Toolbox. Gaps in Knowledge Res. Spartina marshes in southern England. The introduction of Spartina alterniflora to Washington with oyster culture. Patten K, 2004. Members of the genus occur primarily in wetlands, especially estuaries (Partridge, 1987). It prefers locations with low to moderate wave energy, where it further decreases the wave energy causing sediment to be deposited around its stems. Thus, the effect will cause Spartina alterniflora to grow inwards and squeeze S. salsa saltmarsh habitat from the intertidal zone, and P. australis will do the same from the supratidal zone. Spread of exotic cordgrasses and hybrids (Spartina spp.) It is also a part of one of the most productive ecosystems in the world, a wetland. USDA-GRIN (Germplasm Resources Information Network). Watsonia. The species is palatable to livestock, especially deer and horses, so the plant’s continued spread may increase available pasture. Aquatic Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 18(5):592-618. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry, 17(10):1972-1978. 2. are also documented in Australia, New Zealand, China, France, the Netherlands and United Kingdom. The hybrid threatened to turn tidal mud flats into meadow, eliminate shorebird foraging habitat, and push the native S. foliosa toward extinction. These essential zones also provide critical habitat to shorebirds, fish, and shellfish alike. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. American Journal of Botany, 66(6):685-691. Furbish C E, Albano M, 1994. 82-90. Non-indigenous populations of S. alterniflora are also documented in Australia, New Zealand, China, France, the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Sayce (1988) suggests that S. alterniflora was introduced to Willapa Bay, WA, as a discarded packaging material for shipments of eastern oyster spats originating from the east coast of North America. 267-274. Recommended design for more accurate duplication of natural conditions in salt marsh creation. Further investigation is required to establish the efficacy of the herbicides fenuron, Paraquat™, 2,2-DPA and diuron against S. alterniflora prior to their recommendation for widespread use. Vila, M., E. Weber, and C. M. D. Antonio. 17 (10), 1972-1978. The Global Invasive Species Database was developed and is managed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Spartina may displace native plants, such as Zosteramarina (seagrass), Salicornia virginica, Triglochin maritimum, Jaumea carnosa, and Fucus distichus (Wiggins and Binney, 1987; Simenstad and Thom, 1995). Restoration-Ecology. Biological control of Spartina alterniflora in Willapa Bay, Washington using the planthopper Prokelisia marginata: agent specificity and early results. Shaw WB, Gosling DS, 1997. Within its native habitat, S. alterniflora roots and shoots are a food source for waterfowl and wetland mammals, partly keeping the expansion of Spartina wetlands in check. (-% = increase in densities, +% = reduction in densities), spp. A review of Spartina management in Washington State, US. Landward of the tall form, an intermediate form occurs, which grades into a stunted form at the salt marsh interior (Smart, 1982). Smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) control with imazapyr. 2003. Kunz K, Martz M, 1993. Daehler CC, Strong DR, 1994. Because of their ability to trap sediment via decreasing wave energy, Spartina species have been introduced to many parts of the world for estuary reclamation and for erosion control (Partridge, 1987). Mechanical and chemical control of smooth cordgrass in Willapa Bay, Washington. Moberley DG, 1956. Ecology. Journal of Ecology. Ecology, 73(5):1842-1851. Bascand LD, 1968. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Reduced herbivore resistance in introduced smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) after a century of herbivore-free growth. Introduced Cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora Losiel. Watsonia, 23(3):391-400. Genus: Spartina Species: alterniflora Common names: Smooth cordgrass, saltmarsh cordgrass, saltwater cordgrass, Atlantic cordgrass, oystergrass Basic identification key Using the Key to West Coast Spartina Species’ dichotomous key one can properly identify Spartina alterniflora among the other Spartina species. Patten K, 2002. Mendelssohn I A, McKee K L, 1988. Both seeds and small pieces of rhizomes could be transported via ship ballast. have a dense root/rhizome system that binds coastal mud and its sturdy stem decreases wave action allowing silt deposition, causing elevation of the mudbank, assisting in land reclamation. Anttila C K, Daehler C C, 1997. The effects of aeration on the growth of Spartina alterniflora, Loisel. Weed Pest Control Conf. In: The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA [The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA]. Experimental evidence indicates that invertebrate populations in the sediments of S. alterniflora clones, in Willapa Bay are smaller than populations in surrounding non-vegetated intertidal mudflats (Norman and Patten, 1994). Riggs SR, 1992. In addition, stands of S. alterniflora can serve as a nursery area for mangroves, and estuarine fish and shellfish. Ayres, D. R., D. R. Strong, and P. Baye. PNAS vol. An ecological comparison of an introduced marsh plant, Spartina alterniflora, with its native congener, Spartina foliosa, in San Francisco Bay. Daehler C C, Strong D R, 1996. On a small scale seedlings can be pulled out. 6-12. 4. Fully developed Spartina marshes have steeply sloping seaward edges and deep, steep-sided tidal channels. could be investigated further as part of an integrated control programme. Belvoir, VA, USA: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center. Email Communication: Subject: [Aliens-L] Spartina Project Update . Spread of exotic cordgrasses and hybrids (Spartina spp.) 2002. Introduced. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Within its native range of the Atlantic and Gulf coastlines of USA, S. alterniflora exhibits two growth forms, at different salt marsh zones. Within the appendix of their 2006 report, they summarise the individual results of each disparate study and combine these within a meta-analysis to establish the most efficacy control method and attempt to obtain variables (e.g. However, ground sprayed glyphosate did significantly reduce S. alterniflora density, with treatment dates of June/July applications of 38 kg ae/ha being more effective than either similar concentrations at different times of the year or lower active ingredient concentrations. Mendelssohn IA, McKee KL, 1988. Simenstad CA, Thom RM, 1995. Variable reproductive output among clones of Spartina alterniflora (Poaceae) invading San Francisco Bay, California: the influence of herbivory, pollination, and establishment site. Within its native habitat, S. alterniflora roots and shoots are a food source for waterfowl and wetland mammals, partly keeping the expansion of Spartina wetlands in check. Weed Technology. Control of smooth cordgrass with Rodeo® in a southwestern Washington estuary. US Fish and Wildlife Service, ; Clayton, J.S. S. alterniflora is a long-lived perennial that can reproduce both sexually and by vegetative fragmentation. Spartina Workshop Record, Washington Sea Grant Program, University of Washington, Seattle, pp. The 8th International Zebra Mussel & Other Nuisance Species Conference, Sacramento, California. Downloaded from http://iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=792 on 15-01-2021. Why It’s Important. Smooth cordgrass, McEnnulty, F.R., Jones, T.E. Reduced herbivore resistance in introduced smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) after a century of herbivore-free growth. Wallingford, UK: CABI, CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. inundation time, substrate) that might affect the outcomes of each control method. Cohen AN, Carlton JT, 1995. ©Fred Weinmann/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US. Measurement of cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, production in a macrotidal estuary, Bay of Fundy. Smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) control with imazapyr. [Proc. Mullins PH, Marks TC, 1987. by Mumford TF, Peyton P, Sayce JR, Harbell S], 15-20. Altrazine effects on estuarine macrophytes Spartina alterniflora and Juncus roemerianus. Biological Control, 27(1):32-42. Ecology, 75(4):1015-1022. Impact of high herbivore densities on introduced smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, invading San Francisco Bay, California. The effectiveness of management options used for the control of Spartina species. The GISD over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the Abu Dhabi Environment Agency, the Italian Ministry of Environment and ISPRA - the Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Italy. Normally S. anglica has been used for this purpose, however, S. alterniflora has been planted in some areas, such as the North Island of New Zealand (Partridge, 1987). Background The Yancheng coastal natural wetlands (YCNR) are well-preserved silty tidal flat wetlands in China. The species is extremely productive, exporting approximately 1300 g/m2 of detritus annually to the estuarine system (Landin, 1991). S. alterniflora was also introduced to Thorndyke Bay, Kala Point, and Sequim Bay to increase vegetative cover (Ebasco Environmental, 1992). ... Habitat. Seeds and rhizomes spread via spring and winter tides. Atlantic cordgrass. Effects of application of glyphosate on cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, and adjacent native salt marsh vegetation in Padilla Bay, Washington. Web publication. Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Own-Bey M, 1969. The leaves lack auricles and have ligules (1-2 mm) that consist of a fringe of hairs. Border control for potential aquatic weeds. Roberts PD, Pullin AS, 2006. (Thom, 1992). After nearly a century of expansion the initial infestation in Willapa Bay spread to a maximum extent of 3500 hectares in 2003. Western Aquatic Plant Management Society. Does exotic Spartina alterniflora change benthic invertebrate assemblages? Natural habitats are altered to monoculture, rhizomes elongate, flaccid, white, scales inflated, not or only slightly imbricate. Altrazine effects on estuarine macrophytes Spartina alterniflora and Juncus roemerianus. 2003. The decline of Spartina alterniflora (Poaceae) in the British Isles. Spartina alterniflora, Compiler: National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII) & IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), Review: Brian Silliman The Nature Conservancy David H. Smith Postdoctoral Fellow Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences College of William and Mary. Journal of Ecology, S3(3):799-813. Brown CE, Pezeshki SR, DeLaune RD, 2006. invasions in Pacific estuaries, USA. The roles of Spartina species in New Zealand. Pollen swamping of the native California cordgrass (S. Foliosa) by introduced smooth cordgrass (S. Alterniflora) in San Francisco Bay. Rates of change in the numbers of dunlin, Calidris alpina, wintering in British estuaries in relation to the spread of Spartina anglica. Silliman and Newell 2003. viii + 548 pp. 75 (4), 1015-1022. Bertness MD, Shumway SW, 1992. 21st N.Z. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report. The effects of aeration on the growth of Spartina alterniflora, Loisel. Effect of salinity and sulfide on the distribution of Phragmites australis and Spartina alterniflora in a tidal saltmarsh. Winter tilling produced the most effective control intervention, followed by disking and finally crushing. When introduced this species can have a negative effect on native species including some endangered. In: The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA [The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA]. Sheaths mostly glabrous, throat glabrous or minutely pilose, lower sheaths often wrinkled; ligules 1-2 mm; blades to 60 cm long, 3-25 mm wide, lower blades shorter than those above, usually flat basally, becoming involute distally, abaxial surfaces glabrous, adaxial surfaces glabrous or sparsely pilose, margins usually smooth, sometimes slightly scabrous, apices attenuate. Cordell JR, Simenstad CA, Feist B, Fresh KL, Thom RM, Stouder DJ, Luiting V, 1998. Top-down control of Spartina alterniflora production by periwinkle grazing in a Virginia salt marsh. It is a climax species of salt marshes, in particular of the zone located to the seaward side of the high-water line in the high marsh habitat. A contribution to the angiospermic flora of Dahanu forest division in Maharashtra state India. Status, prediction and prevention of introduced cordgrass Spartina spp. Estuaries, 12(1):27-34. Plant Symbol = SPAL. The distribution of Spartina in Victoria and Tasmania, Australia. However, the invasion of Spartina alterniflora (S. alterniflora) not only changed the original landscape structure of the wetlands but also impacted the cranes’ habitats in the YNNR. 37, No. In: Proceedings 21st N.Z. Daehler and Strong (1994) conducted a self-pollinating experiment to show that S. alterniflora outcrosses, with all self-pollinated seeds failing to germinate. Along its introduced east coast range S. alterniflora flowers between late August and September. Ecology. Estuaries. 110 (1), 99-108. Darnell, T. M., and E. H Smith. The short form is more common in slightly higher areas, while the tall form is more common in low areas that are flooded by tides every day. There are also some economically beneficial uses for S. alterniflora. Fiddler crab regulation of Spartina alterniflora production on a New England salt marsh. One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using. In: The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA. 2010, EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species, Highly adaptable to different environments, Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc, Benefits from human association (i.e. Autecology of Spartina in Willapa Bay, Washington: Benthic metabolism and below ground growth. Spartina alterniflora commonly known as smooth cord grass is a species that inhabits marsh habitat in its native range, where introduced It is known to establish itself in wave-protected mud and sand flats and grow very quickly into dense impenetrable stands. The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. 221-231. Spartina alterniflora Die-back in Louisianna: Time-course Investigation of Soil Waterlogging Effects. Ayres DR, Smith DL, Zaremba K, Klohr S, Strong DR, 2004. Higher stem densities dissipate more wave action, therefore allowing a larger amount of sediment to be deposited and a steeper beach profile to form (Gleason et al., 1979). Therefore, to measure S. alterniflora coverage we developed an area of interest by buffering the mapped 2015 coastline for each site 2 km inland and 5 km seaward. Using a close relative of S. alterniflora as a guide, sediment accretion associated with S. anglica infestations in England, has been reported to reduce tidal flow (Hubbard, 1965). Modelling Spartina in Willipa Bay. glabra Spartina alterniflora Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, var. Science for Conservation 141. . Spartina alterniflora. In: The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA, 20-21 March 1997 [The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA, 20-21 March 1997]. Bertness, Mark D. 1984. Harrington JA, Harrington LMB, Berlin CJ, 1997. Waders and waterfowl will lose important foraging and refuge habitat. in the tidal marshes of San Francisco Bay, California, USA. Ebasco Environmental, 1992. Planting Spartina Alterniflora. invasions in Pacific estuaries, USA. Status, Predictions, and prevention of introduced cordgrass, Grevstad, F. S., D. R. Strong, D. Garcia-Rossi, R. W. Switzer, and M. S. Weckere. Introduced. Saltmarsh cordgrass, oystergrass, and saltwater cordgrass . However, seedlings generally begin to tiller late in their first session. > 10°C, Cold average temp. Mapping efforts by the San Francisco Estuary Invasive Spartina Project found that the acreage invaded by hybrid cordgrass increased 52% between 2001 and 2004. Mullins P H, Marks T C, 1987. Other concerns include the replacement of open mudflat habitats associated with bottom-dwelling invertebrate communities by vegetative salt marsh species. In Willapa National Wildlife Refuge, S. alterniflora has already displaced an estimated 16-20 percent of critical habitat for wintering and breeding aquatic birds (Foss, 1992). Estuaries, 15(2):218-226. Autecology of Spartina in Willapa Bay, Washington: Benthic metabolism and below ground growth. Hortus Northwest, 6(1):9-40. M.A. The effectiveness of control methods at reducing the densities of S. alterniflora (Roberts and Pullin, 2006). New Zealand Journal of Botany, 25(4):567-575. Evaluation of mechanical methods and herbicide adjuvant treatments for the effective control of Spartina spp. Facts. Once tillered, hand-pulling may break off portions of the root, allowing the plant to re-grow. Low soil temperature can suppress or delay flowering period and reduce seed production in Spartina. Weed Technology, 16(4):826-832. Based on bird usage and sediment softness, tilling appears to restore mudflats back to suitable habitat for foraging shoreline birds (Gross-Custard and Moser, 1988). Crushing is less expensive than (approximately £50,000), and in addition is quicker than tilling (1-2hr/ha), but for more effective control two or more treatments are required in one year (Roberts and Pullin, 2006; 2007). Care must be taken to remove both the shoot and root for effective control. Bascand LD, 1970. For example, seagrasses (, Experimental evidence indicates that invertebrate populations in the sediments of, prior to their recommendation for widespread use. The Hague, Netherlands: Dr. W. Junk Publishers, 127-142. Goranson C E, Ho C-K, Pennings S C, 2004. A baseline study of the distribution of Spartina alterniflora in Padilla Bay. > 0°C, dry summers, Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter, Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. Champion, P.D. Final Report, submitted to Washington State Department of Ecology, Olympia. Spartina alterniflora (Smooth Cordgrass) as an Invasive Halophyte in Pacific Northwest Estuaries. Harrington J A Jr, Harrington L M B, Berlin C J, 1997. Oecologia, 110(1):99-108. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management. Limited numbers of trials were available for Fenuron, Paraquat, 2,2-DPA and Diuron. The movement of Spartina is prohibited in most states of USA. Spartina alterniflora monocultures dominate low marsh habitats while the seaward border of high marsh habitats is generally dominated by Spartina patens. Unpublished Report available via author contact. Wallingford, UK: CABI, CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. A tall form occurs along creek banks and drainage channels. This higher rate of accretion rate associated with Spartina may change the fundamental nature of portions of Washington’s coastline. Luiting VT, Cordell JR, Olson AM, Simenstad CA, 1997. in the tidal marshes of San Francisco Bay, California, USA. The occurrence of spartina reduces the availability of feeding and roosting habitat for shorebirds, and may be particularly harmful in places that have experienced other tidal flat loss, for example from land claim activities. Pattern of invasion in Poole Harbour. A Field Guide to Moths of Eastern North America. In San Francisco Bay, smooth cordgrass has hybridized with the native California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa), which grows taller, denser, and faster than either parent species. 2002. Maskell L C, Raybould A F, 2001. Shah, G. L., and V. Badrinath. Report to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, Willapa National Wildlife Refuge. Since the waters of the Washington coast are cooler than those in the species’ native Eastern American range, temperature may regulate flowering and seed production (Ebasco Environmental, 1992). Sayce K, 1988. Population variation in growth response to flooding of three marsh grasses. Error Cascades in the Biological Sciences: The Unwanted Consequences of Using Bad Taxonomy in Ecology. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. Covell CV, 2005. It also has the capacity to tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions, including: inundation up to approximately 12 hours a day, pH levels between 4.5and 8.5 and salinity levels of 10-60 ppt, although 10-20 ppt allows for optimal growth (Landin, 1991). S. alterniflora, along with other Spartina was initially seen by many coastal engineers as a species that could be used to create natural erosion control barriers. Glumes straight, sides usually glabrous, sometimes pilose near the base or appressed pubescent, hairs to 0.3 mm; lower glumes 4-10 mm, acute; upper glumes 8-14 mm, keels glabrous, lateral veins not present, apices acuminate to obtuse, occasionally apiculate; lemmas glabrous or sparsely pilose, apices usually acuminate; paleas slightly exceeding the lemmas, thin, papery, apices obtuse or rounded; anthers 3-6 mm. Contributions to the ecology of halophytes [ed. it is a human commensal), Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year, Modification of natural benthic communities, Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices, Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally. Josselyn M, Larsson B, Fiorillo A, 1993. 2002. Grevstad FS, Strong DR, Garcia-Rossi D, Switzer RW, Wecker MS, 2003. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 548 pp. The native range of S. alterniflora is the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States. by Carey JR, Moyle P, Rejmánek M, Vermeij GJ], 51-58. Characterization of exotic Spartina communities in Washington State. Hedge P, Kriwoken L, 1997. Mount Vernon, Washington, USA: Washington State Department of Ecology. Pollen swamping of the native California cordgrass (S. Foliosa) by introduced smooth cordgrass (S. Alterniflora) in San Francisco Bay. Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society, 17:33-40. Effects of grazing by feral horses, clipping, trampling and burning in a Georgia salt marsh. Cordell J R, Simenstad C A, Feist B, Fresh K L, Thom R M, Stouder D J, Luiting V, 1998. Taxonomy and distribution of the genus Spartina. glabra (Muhlenberg ex Elliott) Fernald, Rhodora 18: 178. In: The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA [The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA]. Ecology. McEnnulty FR, Bax NJ, Britta S, Campbell ML, undated. … Mount Vernon, Washington, USA, 63 pp. Howard V, 2008. 2003. 75 (4), 1037-1048. DOI:10.1614/0890-037X(2002)016[0826:SCSACW]2.0.CO;2. Draft Recovery Plan for Tidal Marsh Ecosystems of Northern and Central California. 591-600. 2000. Vascular cryptogams, gymnosperms and monocotyledons. It is also a notified weed, with legislation controlling its movement and planting in New Zealand, Australia, France and the Netherlands. Lessman J M, Mendelssohn I A, Hester M W, McKee K L, 1997. Flora category. Saltmeadow cordgrass is native to the east and Gulf coasts of North America, and introduced in the west coast. In: The Proceedings of the Second International Spartina Conference, Olympia WA. Grows 3 to 7 feet high. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve Reprint Series No. DOI:10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[2830:TDCOSA]2.0.CO;2. Managing Spartina in Victoria and Tasmania, Australia. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database. Appearance: Tall, smooth grass. Impact of high herbivore densities on introduced smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, invading San Francisco Bay, California. Estuaries. However, in several areas where the S. alterniflora has been introduced it does not produce seed. Managing Spartina in Victoria and Tasmania, Australia. In: The 8th International Zebra Mussel & Other Nuisance Species Conference, Sacramento, California [The 8th International Zebra Mussel & Other Nuisance Species Conference, Sacramento, California], Costa C S B, Marangoni J C, Azevedo A M G, 2003. Spartina alterniflora to the native ecosystem: 1. Effect of salinity and sulfide on the distribution of Phragmites australis and Spartina alterniflora in a tidal saltmarsh. 22. Callaway JC, Josselyn MN, 1992. BASIONYM: Spartina glabra Muhlenberg ex Elliott 1816; Dactylis maritima Walter 1788, non Curtis 1787. (1992), In southern Australia, introduced rice grass species S. anglica, S. alterniflora and S. townsendii have been used to stabilise mud banks but are now considered a nuisance; Original citation: McEnnulty and et al. Spartina Task Force, 1994. smooth cordgrass. Lythe J S, Lythe T F, 1998. Roberts PD, Pullin AS, 2007. The stems are hollow and hairless. Ayres D R, Smith D L, Zaremba K, Klohr S, Strong D R, 2004. Biological control of. Spartina alterniflora Die-back in Louisianna: Time-course Investigation of Soil Waterlogging Effects. ], 108-13. 161-169. Effects of stem density upon sediment retention by salt marsh cord grass, Spartina alterniflora Loisel. 2005. Ding JianQing, Mack RN, Lu Ping, Ren MingXun, Huang HongWen, 2008. Smooth Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) Alternate common name: Saltwater Cordgrass, Marsh Grass.